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April, 2003
Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4301. E-mail: hollar@psy.fsu.edu Introduction I became interested in the descriptive analysis of diversity in awarded Ph.D.s in psychology at FSU while in my senior year of its Undergraduate Psychology program. During this time I learned of a report in the textbook, "Even The Rat Was White: A Historical View of Psychology," (Guthrie, 1998), discussing historical aspects of Ph.D.s awarded to African Americans in psychology in the United States. In this book, Guthrie (1998) reported, The Committee on Equality of Opportunity in Psychology (APA) reported that the ten most prestigious departments of psychology in the United States granted only eight Ph.D.s in psychology to Black candidates between 1920 and 1966 while granting a total of 3,767 Ph.D.s during this same period; six of these leading departments had not a single Black Ph.D. (p. 164). Another event that initiated interest in identifying minority acquisition of Ph.D.s in psychology at FSU was a letter written by the first two African American graduates of FSUs doctoral psychology program, Dr. W. Rod Hammond and Dr. Aubrey Perry published in the American Psychologist (see Appendix A). In their letter, Hammond and Perry (1990) commented, "From the 1970s through [1986] . . .. There were about fourteen doctorates in psychology awarded to African Americans [at FSU] (p. 782). They particularly noted that this period coincided with the department chairmanship of Dr. Joseph Grosslight. I decided to research and analyze the departments empirical data about the racial and ethnic identification of its doctoral graduates, to provide both a quantitative description of all awarded Ph.D.s from the Psychology Department, and of the African American and Hispanic graduates, with an additional analysis of dissertation titles by the latter group in which race was an identified variable. To my knowledge this information has not previously been compiled. I addressed five specific questions to develop insight and understanding concerning overall diversity in the psychology department: (1) How are all Ph.D.s awarded by the psychology department distributed across years? (2) How many psychology Ph.D.s were awarded to minorities and foreign students during those years? (3) In what years were minorities awarded the most Ph.D.s? (4) What is the distribution of minority and foreign students among major professors? (5) How frequent was race a variable in dissertation titles by minority and foreign students? Based on my initial findings and after some consultation with Dr. Na'im Akbar, the only African American professor of psychology at Florida State University, I hypothesized that African Americans would be the least represented minority, the majority of minorities would be concentrated among only a few professors, and only a relatively small number of dissertations would include race as a variable in the title. Sample I researched the total 725 Ph.D.s awarded in the Psychology Department, from 1953 to 2002 at Florida State University, a Carnage Research One institution in Tallahassee, FL. Materials Used The Graduate Office of the Psychology Department provided Microsoft Excel files (Psychology Graduate Office FSU, 2002) including (1) the names of all graduates since the department began awarding degrees in 1953, (2) the year of their Ph.D. completion, (3) the program in which they obtained their degree (Clinical, School, Cognitive & Behavioral Science [Cognitive], Experimental, Psychobiology/Neuroscience [Psychobiology/Neuroscience], Social), and (4) the names of their major professors. The Graduate Office files identified the race of minority Ph.D. graduates back to 1983. Cherie Dilworth, of the Graduate Office also provided printed tables consisting of the dissertation titles of minority and foreign graduates from 1983 to 2002. Procedure Completion of files. In order to complete missing data on race of students in the files between 1953-1982, copies of the full list of graduates were given to several professors and staff members who were present in the department in those years (Kennedy, Megargee, Rashotte, Kistner and Warmath). They identified which students were African American and Hispanic from their recollection. The gender of those individuals was identified in a similar fashion. I also retrieved missing dissertation titles of graduates by searching the Florida State University Strozier Library catalog files using Web Luis Database. Also, I wrote to Professor Aubrey Perry of Florida A&M University in Tallahassee, FL to obtain his reactions to an earlier draft of this papers, some of which are quoted in the Results and Discussion. Analysis of completed data set. Graphs or tables showing Ph.D.s awarded in five-year bins between 1953 (the departments first Ph.D.) and 2002 were prepared. Race, sex, Ph.D. program, and major professor were used to categorize doctoral degrees awarded to graduates. Response Measures The absolute totals and ratios of minority (African American, Hispanic American, Asian American and Native American) Ph.D.s were calculated for the following categories: (1) the rate and proportions of minority Ph.D.s relative to total Ph.D.s granted between 1953 and 2002, (2) the Departmental program area in which the minority students were trained, (3) major professors of the graduates, and (4) the occurrence of a race-related variable in their research as indicated by dissertation titles. The data were then divided into a period of five-year bins, beginning with 1953, to describe the rate-per-year of minority, Caucasian, and foreign Ph.D.s. Distribution of Ph.D.s Awarded Between 1953-2002: Total Number and Breakdown by Sex. Figure 1 presents an overall summary of the distribution of the departments 725 Ph.D.s in 5-year bins between 1953 and 2002 and includes a breakdown of the total data by sex. The main trends include a progressive increase in total doctoral degrees between 1953 and the early 1980s. The total number of degrees awarded showed a steep decline in the 1983-87 period, and a more gradual continuing decline through 2002. The peak in total number of degrees occurred in 1973-77 when about 110 were awarded; by the most recent bin, 1998-02, the number of degrees awarded was about half the peak value. 
Figure
1. Distribution of Ph.D.s awarded in FSU Psychology
Department 1953-2002 With respect to the distribution of degrees earned by the two sexes, Figure 1 indicates a striking change across the 50-year period shown. Males earned the vast majority of doctoral degrees in psychology in the initial twenty years, through 1972, and in the 1973-77 bin, females were earning about half the number of doctoral degrees as earned by males. Perhaps most striking is the subsequent sustained decrease in degrees earned by males and the steady number of degrees earned by females. These trends continue to the present time and have resulted in females earning a larger number of doctoral degrees in psychology than males in 1998-02. Distribution of Ph.D.s Awarded Between 1953-2002: Ethnic Breakdown. Table 1 shows the distribution of doctoral degrees earned by ethnic groups since 1953 Overall, minority and foreign students combined have received about 9% (64 of 725) of the total Ph.D.s awarded by the Psychology Department. The mid-1980s was the period in which the peak number of degrees occurred for African Americans (6 in 1983-87). Subsequently, the number per bin has decreased steadily, falling as low as 2/bin in 1998-02. With one notable exception (1978-82), the distribution of doctoral degrees earned by Hispanic American students has remained relatively steady at about 4/bin since the early 1970s. Degrees awarded to foreign students has been low and steady (2 or 3) since 1978-82. Overall, the bin in which the most Ph.D.s (10) were awarded to minorities was 1983-1987. Distribution of doctoral
degrees earned by ethnic groups 1953-1957 1958-1962 1963-1967 1968-1972 1973-1977 1978-1982 1983-1987 1988-1992 1993-1997 1998-2002 TOTAL Figure 2 shows a breakdown by sex of the Hispanic and African American data across the 50 year period. In both ethnic groups, an initial dominance by males gives way to a persistent dominance by females in the number of degrees earned. The female-male difference is strongest in the African American distribution where only 1 doctoral psychology degree has been earned by an African American male in the last 15 years, and none at all in the last 10 years. Eight African American females have earned doctoral psychology degrees in the last 15 years. 
Figure 2.
Distribution of Ph.D.s awarded to male and female Hispanic
American and Distribution of Ph.D.s Awarded Between 1953-2002: Breakdown by Departmental Training Area for Minority and Foreign Students. Table 2 shows the total number of doctoral psychology degrees awarded in 50 years broken down by departmental training area and classification of graduates in ethnic and foreign groups. The only area that spans the entire 50 year period without a name change is the Clinical area. School psychology was discontinued as a departmental area about 1990. In that process there was one student who was jointly trained in the School and Clinical areas (see Table). The Experimental area split into subareas, including Psychobiology/Neuroscience and Cognitive and Behavioral Science(Cognitive). The Social area was active for a few years and then combined into the Cognitive area. Although the fluidity of these area designations makes for an interpretive problem, it is noteworthy that about 75% (38/51) of all minority graduates were trained in the Clinical Psychology program. The majority of foreign students, 46% (6/13) also participated in the Clinical Psychology program. Of all minority students who participated in the Clinical Psychology program, 42% (16/38) were African American and 55% (21/38) were Hispanic American. Total number of doctoral
psychology degrees awarded in 50 years broken down by Program Clinical School Experimental &
Psychobiology/Neuroscience Cognitive &
Behavioral Science School/Clinical Social TOTAL
Distribution of African Americans and Hispanic Americans Students by Major Professor. Examination of records of African and Hispanic American students with respect to their major professors revealed that Professor Jack Hokanson the mentored the most African American graduates, 21% (5/24), and Professor Edwin Megargee advised the most Hispanic American, 16% (4/25). Professors with the most foreign students each had 15% (2/13), Professors Mark Licht and Professor Janet Kistner. Race as a variable in minority or foreign dissertation titles. Table 3 summarizes for individual students in each ethic classification, and for foreign students, the title of their doctoral dissertation. Of the total minority dissertation titles, 14% (7/51) included race as a variable. About 17% (4/ 24) of African American titles and 8% (2/25) of Hispanic American titles included race as a variable. Race was not a variable in dissertation titles of foreign students. Title of doctoral
dissertation by individual students in each Perry Aubrey Youthful Offenders'
Aggressive and Autonomic Reactions to Stress as a
Function of Race of Examiner and Race of
Subject. Hammond William
R. A Behavioral
Approach Toward Maintaining Criterion Approval
Rates of Elementary Teachers Using Fixed and
Variable Schedules of Principal Feedback Dawkins Marva An Analogue Study
of Psychotherapy: Youthful Offenders' Autonomic and
Behavioral Reactions to Stress as a Function of
Race of Subject and a Brief Exposure to One of Four
Different Therapeutic Orientations Noble Alma G. A Behavioral
Approach to Improved Reading Performance of Primary
Minority Pupils Wesley Andrea
L. Exogenous
Modulation of Drinking Rhythms in Three Strains of
Rats Elion Victor An Empirical
Analysis of Racial Effects as Manifested in
Sentences Served by Black and White
Inmates Breckenridge Lorraine The Effects of
Thermal Biofeedback and Transcutaneous Electrical
Nerve Stimulation (TENS) Treatment on
Dysmenorrhea Brown James G. Improving Academic
Performance Through Systematic Mnemonic
Training Gayles Joyce The Operations of
Gender Schema in the Categorization of Female and
Male Characteristics Norville Milton Hostility and
Depression: The Effects of a Negative Impression on
Depressives' Social Behaviors Powell Rudy A Laboratory
Validational Study of the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory Briscoe Richard Behavioral
Community Psychology: A Behavioral-based Program
for Teaching Employment Interviewing Skills to
Vocationally Handicapped Persons Dennard Dana A Comparison of Two
Theories of Depression Maintenance Via a Therapy
Analog Kelly Jennifer The Effectiveness
of Relaxation and Pulse Wave Velocity Biofeedback
as Methods of Reducing Cardiovascular
Responsiveness to Stressful Stimuli Ames-Dennard Sharon Referral Bias In
Teacher's Nomination of Black and White Elementary
School Children for Gifted Evaluation Morgan Sharon The Effects of Two
Types of Phonological Awareness Training on Word
Learning in Kindergarten Children Langley Merlin Effects of
Cultural/Racial Identity, Cultural Commitment and
Counseling Approach on African American Males'
Perceptions of Therapist Credibility and
Utility Davis Charlotte The Determinants of
Response to Phonological Awareness
Training Nance Carriella The Effects of High
Versus Low Context Congruity on Accuracy in
Detecting Deception Hume Marie Assessment of the
Adolescent Sex Offender: Implications for the Use
of a Measure to Determine Seriousness of Offending
Behavior Hawkins Antonia Cognitive
Determinants of Children's Illusions of Academic
Incompetence Walker Rheeda An Investigation of
Acculturative Stress and Ethnic Identification as
Risk Factors for Suicidal Ideation in
African-American vs. Anglo-American Men and Women:
The Moderating Effects of Religiosity and Social
Support Bacho Roderick Effects of
Acculturation, Ethnic Identity Commitment, and
Family Coping on Filipino-American Family Matrons'
Severity of Psychological Symptoms and Attitudes
Toward Mental Health Services Dinc Ifet The Role of the
Olfactory System in the Detection of Ionizing
Radiation by the Rat Farooqui Mumtaz Marital and Family
Power in the Mirror of Decision Making: An
Experimental Test of Blood and Wolfes Resource
Theory Maas Anne Internalization and
Compliance: Differential Processes Underlying
Minority influence and Conformity Meltzer Sari Depression and
Marital Roles Johnston Charlotte Maternal
Characteristics, Parenting Behavior, and Deviant
Child Behavior Ozkaragoz Tulin The Effect of
Positive Mood on an Academic Task Ho Alan Motion Processing
in the Human Visual System: A Psychophysical
Analysis of the Aperture Motion Problem Klimes-Dougan Bonnie The Emergence of
Negotiation: Developmental Trends and Caregivers'
Contributions Yi Imgap Stress Ulcers in
Rats: Circadian Rhythms, Adiposity, and Substrate
Utilization Hubscher Charles Sensory Input from
Pelvic Reproductive Organs to the Gracile and
Solitary Nuclei in the Female Rat Tay May Ping How Children's
Agency and Means-Ends Beliefs Predict Their Control
Beliefs, Task Engagement and Achievement in
Math Mahadevan Srinivasan Measurement of the
Basic Capacity of Immediate Memory Sahakyan Lilli A Contextual
Account of the Directed Forgetting
Effect Vega Manuel The performance of
Negro children on an oddity discrimination task as
a function of the race of the examiner and the type
of verbal incentive used by the examiner Bauermeister Jose J. Positive
reinforcement: Further Tests of the Premack
Theory Velez-Diaz Angel G. The Holtzman
Inkblot Technique and the Assessment of Organic
Brain Damage Gonzalez Fernando The
Anxiety-arousing Effect of Taboo Words in
Bilinguals Martinez-Urruttia Angel C. Pain and Anxiety in
Surgical Patients Sosa-Soto Juan N. Vascular Effects of
Frustration and Aggression-anxiety on Members of a
Clinical Population Rios-Garcia Luis R. Self-esteem,
Defense Styles and Conformity Gonzalez Jorge L. A Psychotherapy
Analogue Study: Changes in Autonomic and Behavioral
Functioning of Incarcerated Young Offenders as a
Function of Predominant Response to Interpersonal
Stress and a Brief Exposure to One of Four Therapy
Tapes and a Conditioning Procedure Nunez Antonio Neural Control of
Circadian Rhythms and their Entrainment to the
Light-dark Cycle Sanchez Yolanda The Role of
Cognitive and Physiological Processes in
Emotion Reyes Elena Short Term Effects
on Children in a Residential Treatment Facility of
Exposure to Marital Violence Tozzo Carmen The Effect of
Sensorimotor Rhythm Biofeedback on Intractable
Epilepsy Corvea Martha A Clinical
Comparison of Senile Dementia: Alzheimers Type and
Multi-Infarct Type Comperatore Carlos Gastrointestinal
Physiology and Circadian Regulation of Food
Intake Gay Jose A Comparison on In
Vivo Exposure and Cognitive Restructuring in the
Treatment of a Specific Kind of Social Phobia:
Psychogenic Urinary Retention Among Federally
Incarcerated Prison Inmates" Somoza Maria Social Intelligence
and Likeability Munoz Marsisol Illusion of
Control: Stability of the Phenomenon and its
Relationship to Dispositional Variables Correa
Kaiser Judy Blame and
Stigmatization of Victims of Sexual and Nonsexual
Harassment as a Function of Severity of Harassment,
of Filing a Grievance, and of Consequences to the
Perpetrator Meadows William The Role of
Individual Difference Variables in Accounting for
As Socialiations Between Alcohol Consumption and
Sexual Risk Taking Castro Rafael Challenge
Preference in Young Children: Relationship to Other
Motivational Variables and Maternal
Behaviors Alfonso Isabel The Effects of
Weight on Employment Decisions in a Variety of Job
Settings Mireles David Assembling
Long-term Working Memory: Retrieval Structures and
Integrative Encoding as Critical Components of a
Simple Memory Skill Rivera Patricia Effectiveness of a
Psycho educational Intervention for the Reduction
of Distress in Mexican American Caregivers of
Dementia Patients Pena
Morgens Liana The As Socialiation
of MMPI-A Scales With Measures of Adjustment Among
Institutionalized Male Juvenile
Delinquents Verona Edelyn A Direct Assessment
of the Role of State and Trait Negative Emotion in
Aggressive Behavior Hooe Eric Negative and
Positive Affectivity: Toward a Hierarchical
Structure of Temperament in School-Age
Children Correspondence with Dr. Aubrey Perry: The Acceptance of African Americans in Psychology, Areas of Concern Regarding African Americans and Psychology in General, and Reaction to Figures 1 and 2. Dr. Perry thinks the increases in acceptance, nationally, of African Americans is because most doctoral graduates have distinguished themselves and brought greater distinction to the department by their success in the professional field of psychology, however, there still remains much to be done (personal communication, March 26, 2002). Dr. Perry stated, "psychologists need to be more active in their roles in addressing social illnesses, which primarily affect minorities and develop strategies for preventing these illness from overwhelming our communities and generations (personal communication, March 26, 2002)." Dr. Perry expressed concern over the rate at which African American Ph.D.s have been steadily decreasing since 1988, which is attributable entirely to the reduction in the number of degrees earned by African American males (personal communication, March 26, 2002). This investigation showed since 1953 the number of minorities awarded doctoral degrees in psychology at FSU progressed over the years, increasing and decreasing according to the trend of the overall total Ph.D.s awarded by the department. Concerning minorities overall, Hispanic Americans had the greatest accumulation of awarded Ph.D.s in the department (25 Ph.D.s). Within the different gender groups of minorities the distribution of awarded doctoral degrees is unbalanced. The data show African American males are the least represented minority. They total only 9 Ph.D.s since the first, Aubrey Perry, was awarded the doctoral degree in 1972. The last African American male to receive a doctoral degree, Merlin Langley, was over a decade ago in 1972. Hispanic Americans were closely balanced, males had 14 Ph.D.s and females had 11 Ph.D.s Overall, minorities averaged about six (6) Ph.D.s every five (5) years. Over the same period of time, 1963-2002, Caucasian Americans averaged seventy-three (73) Ph.D.s every five (5) years. Minority dissertation titles that included race as a named variable occurred about 15% of the time. Most dealt with mainstream studies in psychology. If this study is indicative of minority trends in Research One institutions throughout the United States, the data might suggest some cause for concern in the minority community with regard to finding solutions to mental illness and Social pathology. The scarcity and neglect of African American and Hispanic American graduates who were active in tackling issues of mental illness in minority communities, "which will probably only be addressed by African American [and Hispanic American] psychologists (A. Perry, personal communication, March 26, 2002), indicates a potential epidemic of unidentified and untreated Social illnesses in minority communities. From this data I draw some general assumptions as to the recruitment of minority students by the department. For the most part, Ph.D.s awarded to African Americans increased relative to increases in the overall Ph.D.s awarded, and decreased whenever there were periods of overall decrease. The trend shown by the data indicates inactivity because logically it should follow that if the overall department acceptance rates increased (reflected in the amount of Ph.D.s awarded) one would find similar increases or decreases for African Americans or other minorities. The data show minority Ph.D. acquisition has been disproportionately smaller than that of Caucasians leading to decreases in the department size having had a profound effect on minorities, specifically for African American males who have had zero (0) Ph.D.s for the last eleven (11) years. Therefore, it is my assertion that this trend does not reveal any visible indication of active internal recruitment efforts nor the presence of long lasting external manipulations, such as through Affirmative Action policies and the like, to substantially increase African American and Hispanic diversity in the Psychology Ph.D. program of FSU; noting the Chairmanship of Joseph Grosslight as the only visible indication of active and successful minority recruitment on the part of the department. This should cause concern and further investigation as to what factors may have been in play that inhibited proportional growth among the minority population relative to the overall size of the department and what can be done to improve these numbers. Since the department had not kept accurate records on minority acquisition of Ph.D.s it has neglected its responsibility as a public institution concerned with ensuring equal opportunity among minority groups. This is of special importance today with the apparent attack and end to all Affirmative Action based education programs that ensured equal opportunity. Although efforts have been made to improve the quality of diversity in the department, it is equally important to increase the quantity of those diverse minority group members, especially in a university that promotes diversity. This is why census data and other departmental records on race are necessary. They allow measurement of racial inequalities in higher education which effects employment, income and other standards of living. Thus such data are important tools in the fight against discrimination, despite their many imperfections (Farley, 2000). It has been my goal that this data be viewed as a call to action for students to become more active in investigating psychological and Social issues affecting minorities and for the faculty to once again become active in its promotion of diversity, ensuring not only quality but also quantity. I would like to thank Dr. Michael Rashotte, FSU Psychology professor, for technical support and using the Sigma Plot program to create graphs. Dr. Na'im Akbar, FSU Psychology professor, for helping direct my hypothesis. Professor Aubrey Perry of Florida A&M University and Dr. Rod Hammond of the Center for Disease Control for the correspondence regarding their personal experiences in FSUs Graduate Psychology Program. Cherie Dilworth, secretary in the Graduate Office of the Psychology Department, for providing Excel files and locating minority and foreign dissertation titles back to 1983. Dr. Wallace Kennedy, Dr. Edwin Megargee, Dr. Janet Kistner and Stan Warmath of the FSU Psychology Department for identifying graduate students by race prior to 1983.
Letter retyped from American Psychologist, (1990) 45, p. 782.
Florida A&M University The obituary of Joseph H. Grosslight was a fitting tribute to a impressive individual whose distinctions in psychology were so genuinely deserved (Anker, June 1989). We however would like to elaborate from personal experience on another dimension of his leadership as chair of psychology at Florida State University during the crucial years accompanying racial change in higher education in the southeastern United States. In 1968, we entered Florida State University as the first two African-American trainees in the doctoral program of which Joseph Grosslight was chair. At that time the racial climate was strained because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, rebellion in the urban ghettos, student unrest, and the arguably slow pace of attempts to integrate many institutions of higher learning. At a time when the remnants of de jure segregation were still apparent, Joe Grosslight contributed strength and substance to the departments commitment to desegregation. Many programs seemed to stand by and passively await change, but he made vigorous efforts to include minority students in his. For example, he paid travel expenses for recruitment activities and he made funds available for culturally sensitive department publications designed to attract minorities to the various training programs. He was equally concerned about the retention of minority students through graduation. This was reflected in his continuous concern for a supportive atmosphere in the department as well as his efforts to foster similar attitudes among faculty and staff. We are not suggesting that the faculty and staff were antagonistic-in fact some were activists for civil rights. However, it made a difference that Joe Grosslight himself was genuinely interested. As in his other endeavors Joe Grosslight was typically tough-minded when he was confronted by minority students. He often would challenge us to share the initiative, to come up with our own ideas. If we had a proposal that required resources-that is money-he would not back away. How would simply go through with it. Although these methods of minority recruitment and retention might seem unremarkable today, they were extraordinary at that time and place. IN those days such commitment was rare and infrequently matched with either resources or know how. From the 1970s through the remainder of his term as chair, there were about 14 doctorates in psychology awarded to African Americans. He seemed to be genuinely interested in the minority graduates, and he maintained contact with many of us. He was a dependable source of career advice and helped many of us through his far-reaching collegial networks. Besides his accomplishments as an eminent behavioral scientist, leader in the American Psychological As Socialiation, and department chair, Joseph Grosslight was for us a Social-change agent. Because of his cooperation and support, significant numbers of minority students matriculated and ultimately attained doctorates in a department in which no such precedent existed. This too is an important legacy. References Anker, J. M. (1989). Joseph H. Grosslight (1921-1988) American Psychologist, 44, 958. |
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